Development and Validation of a Multidimensional Perceived Distance Scale in Open and Distance Learning: A Transactional Distance Theory-Based Approach

Creative Commons License

Usta İ., Uğurhan Y. Z. C., Özen E.

EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, vol.15, no.4, pp.1025-1046, 2026 (Scopus)

Abstract

This study aimed to develop and validate a multidimensional scale for measuring perceived distance among learners in open and distance learning (ODL) environments, grounded in Transactional Distance (TD) Theory. Perceived distance was operationalized across seven sub-dimensions: physical distance, temporal distance, psychological distance, technological distance, experience, bias, and learning facilitation. An exploratory sequential mixed-methods design was employed. In the qualitative phase, a systematic literature review, document analysis, and structured expert consultation involving 24 ODL specialists were conducted to generate and content-validate an initial item pool using the Lawshe technique, yielding a 34-item draft scale. In the quantitative phase, data were collected from 545 active open and distance learners enrolled in the Faculty of Open Education at Anadolu University (Türkiye) via an online survey administered through the institutional LMS. The dataset was randomly split; Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was performed on the first subsample and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) on the second. EFA confirmed a seven-factor structure accounting for 64.82% of total variance. CFA supported this structure with acceptable goodness-of-fit indices (χ²/df = 2.909, CFI = .902, SRMR = .051, RMSEA = .059). Internal consistency coefficients (Cronbach's α) ranged from .715 to .913 across sub-dimensions. The results indicate that the scale is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring perceived distance in ODL environments. The scale is anticipated to provide practitioners and policymakers with evidence-based diagnostic data for identifying learners at risk of dropout and informing the design of more effective ODL interventions